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A prominent challenge of offline reinforcement learning (RL) is the issue of hidden confounding: unobserved variables may influence both the actions taken by the agent and the observed outcomes. Hidden confounding can compromise the validity of any …

Balancing forces within weight-bearing joints such as the hip during joint replacement surgeries is essential for implant longevity. Minimising implant failure is vital to improve patient wellbeing and alleviate pressure on healthcare systems. With …